Research to Support the Implementation of Histoires en action !
Introduction
The Accelerative Integrated Method (AIM) is a systematic approach to the teaching of core French. Its goal is to help teachers effectively lead students to much higher levels of confidence and fluency in the second language (L2) than has been possible through other communicative approaches. The program is based upon over a decade of research and successful implementation with students at the elementary school level. The theoretical framework for the design and implementation of the program is supported by research in the field of acquisition, first language (L1) acquisition trends, as well as by action research in the core French and immersion classroom. This program differs from current communicative programs, in that it more closely parallels the style of an immersion program. It is what Stern (1982) termed a “contrived arrangement”, as opposed to a “communicative situation”—the approach used in the programs whereby themes are selected as the basis for vocabulary development. According to Stern (1982), in his description of the communicative syllabus as part of the Multidimensional Curriculum, the contrived arrangement is the preferred method of instruction for the enhancement of communicative skills. As he states:
The emphasis in this syllabus is on topics, on information – not on language as such. One of the most readily available ways of doing this is to offer a subject other than the language itself in French or to draw on the other subjects of the school curriculum; in this way the language is used as a means of communication for something else (Stern 1982 : 4 1).
Histoires en action ! is a content-based program, in which language is taught through a linguistically rich subject matter. For this and other reasons, the method has the potential to lead students to higher levels of communicative competence than can be attained by a program in which the selection of the vocabulary is thematically based and therefore tends to be noun-centered. Efforts to improve the qulity of programming and linguistic competence among students in the L2 core French classes in Canada have been undertaken in recent years as a result of the National Core French Study (NCFS). This was a large-scale, Canada-wide analysis of core French programs that was undertaken between 1985 and 1990 (Le Blanc, 1990). The impetus for this study came about as a result of the work by H.H. Stern (1982), who postulated the above-mentioned Multidimensional Curriculum for L2 learning. The findings of the NCFS, based upon the recommendations that Stern (1982) had made several years prior to its inception, suggested a shift away from the traditional form-focused, or grammar-based approaches, toward a methodology that encompassed both the traditional approach, balanced with a communicative, experiential programming.
In a program that promotes communicative competence, it is logical that the teacher should provide students with opportunities to communicate in the L2. However, one must not overlook the rather obvious fact that in order to be able to engage in discussions around topics of interest, a basic level of fluency must be developed. The goal of Histoires en action ! is to ensure that language is presented and acquired in a systematic manner so that fluency development is accelerated effectively. The AIM is comprised of a variety of interconnected components which together form a powerfully integrated whole that not only has proved to motivate students to learn, but also helps them to develop a great sense of pride in their successful acquisition of the language. The program allows children:
- to experience language in a contextualized form, through exposure to story, theatre, drama and music;
- to acquire language kinesthetically;
- to gain access initially to high frequency vocabulary, presented in a way that parallels first language learning, in order to ensure ease of acquisition;
- to maximize their production of the language.
Teachers need not have any prior experience with drama or with the use of kinesthetic techniques. The method, although quite unique in its approach, is relatively easy to learn, due in great part to its inherently repetitive nature.
A Holistic, Integrated and Systematic Approach
Histoires en action ! ensures that students have the opportunity to learn the language in an integrated manner. From the beginning of language acquisition, there is a balance among all four language skills (reading, writing, listening and speaking). In this way, the program closely parallels language development in immersion and bilingual classes, and allows visual and auditory learners the opportunity to enhance language skills equally. The activities of this method respond to a variety of intelligences, including kinesthetic, linguistic, musical, spatial, interpersonal and intrapersonal.
1. Vocabulary presentation is systematic, builds holoarchically through spiralling scaffolded activities (GA and story/drama/music)
The method differs from immersion programs, in that the vocabulary itself as well as techniques used for presentation of this vocabulary, are systematically designed to ensure rapid fluency building. At any point in the program, the teacher knows exactly what vocabulary students know and have yet to learn.
The method is designed to ensure that students receive appropriate amounts of exposure to high frequency, functional vocabulary in a holoarchical, upwardly spiral manner through activities that ensure the pleasant repetition necessary to build fluency in the limited time available to core French teachers in FSL programs.
In contrast to the chunking of vocabulary around a given theme, the vocabulary of each gesture and story/drama unit throughout the Histories en action! is designed to ensure maximum exposure to essential lexical elements for beginning fluency. Thematically specific vocabulary is taught by gestured associations. For example, by teaching les vêtements through association with met/enlève, as in: met le chapeau, met le manteau, met les souliers, etc. and enlève le chapeau, enlève le manteau...
2. Content-based, integrated study
The content-based approach helps students learn more than the language of instruction. Through the integrated study of literature, music, drama and dance for eventual performance, the value of core French as a contributing subject in the curriculum is thereby increased. Lives of characters from a variety of situations and cultural backgrounds may be studied. The method lends itself well to the study of traditional stories from around the world, thus encompassing a far greater scope than the traditional thematic approach. Students learn about themselves as well as others. Students have the opportunity to expand their knowledge of character and plot development, oral storytelling, theatre and eventually improvisational drama.
3. From whole to part – Providing an initial picture of the language
The method parallels L1 acquisition, so that students work holistically with the language initially. Refinement of the language arises as a result of the need to fine tune communication, once students have developed a certain level of fluency.
4. From teacher-led to student creativity
Because this program is designed to encourage the development of a critical level of fluency as early as possible in the course of L2 acquisition, students enter the program with little or no skills in the L2. The purpose of the program is to accelerate learning of the language so that students can be independent and confident communicators, within the initial months of instruction, and indeed success of student acquisition depends on the teacher’s ability to effectively be the sole language provider initially for the students. As soon as the students reach a level of beginning fluency where they are able to communicate at a rudimentary level, a system of self-monitoring the use of French should be established. At this point, fluency begins to increase dramatically, as students engage in numerous spontaneous interactions with peers, and put to use the high frequency vocabulary that they are being taught. Communicative as well as thinking skills continue to be developed by the systematic organization of the program presented by the teacher; however students take a much larger role in their learning from the point of critical fluency onward.
5. Presentation of vocabulary is functionally-based
Vocabulary has been selected specifically to ensure that students develop functional language skills during the initial stages of acquisition.
PARED DOWN LANGUAGE (PDL): To ensure continuity and sequence for the development of a language base
The method is based upon the notion that it is essential for French Second Language (FSL) programs to provide students with a systematic approach that ensures continuity and sequence, in order to effectively accelerate the development of an essential vocabulary base. It is a vocabulary that, both in theory and in practice, appears to be the most essential for beginning fluency of young learners of FSL in order for students to achieve the most basic of communicative skills as quickly and effortlessly as possible. The PDL was developed through action research in a core French classroom setting. It is also based upon research in first language (L1) acquisition studies (Clarke 1985, O’Connor Di Vito 1990), vocabulary frequency research (France, 1956), and other functionally-oriented research into L2 acquisition, such as the Threshold Level studies (van Ek, 1975).
The major components of the PDL are as follows:
1. Emphasis on verbs
Verbs are at the very centre of linguistic competence, and, it is for this reason that a high percentage of the PDL is comprised of verbs. The heart of the PDL contains verbs that, traditionally, are not introduced in early L2 acquisition, due to their morphological complexity, including faire, aller, devoir, pouvoir, prendre, mettre, savoir etc. ) The problem of irregularity of conjugation has been simplified by the presentation of a regularized stem. (see below). This high emphasis on verbs runs contrary to the thematic-based approaches, as they tend to naturally be noun- centred.
2. Cognates, whenever possible, are used.
Whenever there is an option, the cognate is selected as the first word taught in the PDL.
3. Use of the regularized stem
With the exception of a very small percentage of verbs, the presentation of a regularized verb stem parallels the first language acquirer’s natural tendency to use a regularized stem in the beginning stages of communication (Clark, 1985). Students apply this verb form (orally) to the use of 1st, 2nd and 3rd person singular as well as 3rd person plural. Initially the use of on is used exclusively (as opposed to nous), so that this form may also be applied to 1st person plural. (For example, je marche, tu marches, il marche, elle marche, on marche, ils marchent, elles marchent, where the verb form is orally identical.) Studies have shown that, among native speakers, both adults and children tend to make frequent use of the third person impersonal pronoun (Clark, 1985). The GA teaches the regularized stem rapidly, so that, within a few months, many students will have access to over 100 verbs for beginning fluency. Reflexive verbs are presented in the third person. Studies have shown that the third person reflexive form se is used as often as 83% in native speech, compared to 2% to 6% for other forms (nous, vous), and therefore, in addition to ease of acquisition, initial emphasis on this form is highly justified on the basis of L1 frequency (O’Connor DiVito, 1991). The ez/er/é ending to the stem is also of high frequency among first conjugation verbs, so that the teacher may easily ensure extensive practice with double verb conjugations (je veux manger), passé composé (tu as parlé) and, once the 2nd person singular is firmly acquired, the vous form as well (Vous écoutez). Vous and nous are introduced initially as object pronouns. The subject pronouns nous and vous are introduced in the third year of the program, once fluency with the other forms is fully established.
4. All the essential irregular verbs (avoir, être, faire, aller) are fully conjugated
This is due to their exceptionally high frequency and oral variation in singular, plural and infinitive forms. Initially, the third person stem will be taught. Soon after, the first person form is introduced, followed quickly by the third person plural form.
5. Use Est-ce que …? only when questioning, no inversions during the first couple of years
In order to maintain a high degree of consistency and reliability, as recommended by Hulstijn (1995), this program ensures that teachers keep the subject-verb order consistent with declarative sentences – both affirmative and negative, in order to increase ease of acquisition. Delaying the inverted form allows students to be presented with native speaker norms, as some studies have indicated that up to 99% of questions asked are either formed by intonation or Est-ce que…? (Lightbown and D’Anglejan,1985).
6. One word per meaning
Avoid synonyms until a critical level of fluency is established with the PDL, so that maximum exposure to selected vocabulary is ensured. This a notion supported by Le français fondamental.
7. Context-specific high frequency vocabulary should be fully internalized initially.
Limit the introduction of large amounts of context-specific, specialized nouns, while ensuring presentation of vocabulary that should be available (disponible). Again, this is indicated in Le français fondamental.
STORY, MUSIC AND DRAMA Pedagogical framework for the implementation of an integrated story/drama/music based approach in L2 programs
In order to develop both literacy and thinking skills, there can not be a better vehicle than the use of story/theatre/drama and music. The following, in brief, is an outline of a few of the major reasons why the decision to use this subject matter is particularly effective in accelerating fluency development during the initial stages of second language acquisition.
1. Program is literature-based. The student experiences the L2 as narrative/dialogue, extensive language-rich exposure and comprehensible input. (Krashen, 1981)
2. Units last for extended period of time. This allows for in-depth study. The in-depth process, going “in, out and around a story”, is an effective way to develop language and literacy skills.
3. The language is contextualized. This is essential for development of word-concept. (Vadim-Deglin quoted in Wilkinson, 1993)
4. The method promotes small group and cooperative learning and positive interdependence. This is proven effective in promoting motivation, self-esteem, and a positive attitude toward L2. (Bennett, B. Rolheiser, C. Stevahn, L.,1991)
5. Students take responsibility for their own learning and evaluation of efforts and progress.
6. Story/drama are inherently highly motivational. (Bidwell, 1990)
7. This is a fully integrated approach. Music, story, theatre, drama, and kinesics work synergistically. (Maxwell, 1999)
8. The method responds to a variety of learning styles (auditory/visual/kinesthetic/) and intelligences. (visual/kinesthetic/linguistic/spatial/musical/interpersonal/ intrapersonal) (Gardner, 1985)
9. Relevant issues are addressed. Meaningful subjects and study of stories from cultures around the world are included.
10. The program allows for flow among individual, small group and whole class activities – Transmission/transaction/transformation (Miller,1996)
11. A theatre and literature centred program naturally leads to a variety of scaffolded language-based activities.
12. Emotional language is key to the effective internalization of language and occurs best through story, drama and music.
13. The method naturally provides many opportunities for essential pleasant repetition. This is essential to acquisition within a limited time frame.
14. Parent participation is a natural extension of the program. Parental involvement is an indicator of student success. The feedback allows the teacher to ensure that students share, and that parents have a voice.
15. The focus on story allows for many opportunities for sustained speech and this is essential to the development of superior language skills, expression in complete thoughts.
16. Extended activities based on story and drama develop higher order thinking skills –analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
18. The use of story/theatre/drama/music as the basis for content ensures maximum production of the language, both oral and written. Comprehensible output is as important to L2 development as comprehensible input.
SCAFFOLDED LANGUAGE MANIPULATION ACTIVITIES
In order to maximize the opportunities provided by a text with which students become intimately involved, both personally and linguistically, it is essential that students be encouraged to expand upon this knowledge to develop linguistic and thinking skills. Activities allow students to find success at each stage of their language development. Initially, they are heavily context-embedded, and students may manipulate only one to ten words at a time. As students work through a play unit and their familiarity with the text increases, activities become more demanding. Questions based on the play (there are at least 100 suggested questions per play) help students learn to form and answer questions in complete thoughts – an essential tool during the early stages of language acquisition. Higher order thinking skills are developed as students learn to retell stories and extend plots beyond where they finish in the text. From one play unit to the next, activities of the same type are repeated, so that students do not have to deal with the learning of an activity as well as the challenge of the L2 each time. With each new play, therefore, some activities are repeated, and others are added. This continues to build until students reach a critical level of fluency where dealing with beginning L2 difficulties becomes much less of an issue. The inherent advantage of an integrated approach where all activities are based around and extend out from a given text is obvious. What is unique about this approach is that all these activities are carried out with the expectation that students will constantly produce orally all activities through the use of gesture by themselves and their teacher.
THE GESTURE APPROACH
Just about every L2 teacher gestures, to some degree, to his or her students to help convey meaning. Actually, studies have shown that the use of gesture as a nonverbal communication technique promotes increased receptivity on the part of the students toward the subject matter, and , in the eyes of the students , makes the teacher appear much more approachable, interested, warm and caring (Bancroft, 1997). This new strategy, termed the Gesture Approach (GA), takes the use of gesture to a whole new level, allowing teachers to both visually and kinesthetically teach vocabulary like never before. Due to the accelerated rate of success in language acquisition as a result of the implementation of this method, students are much more motivated to learn the second language and are extremely proud of their new language ability. Most gestures in this program are a natural sign for the word. Others were chosen by trial and error, as their meaning seemed to “click” with the students. In some cases, students were invited to come up with a variety of suggestions. The goal of this approach is to accelerate the acquisition of the language by providing a sign that will ensure that meaning is conveyed as quickly and easily as possible, so that the word-meaning connection is almost immediate. It is essential that the signs become quickly and easily assimilated in a L2 learning context. The vocabulary taught through the GA is the same as that which is contained in the stories, songs and language manipulation activities developed for the method. It consists of the high frequency lexical elements of the PDL. Students are taught this vocabulary through a combination of the GA, story/drama and music within the first 90 to 200 hours of instruction. It is the initial step that provides students with a language base that will allow them to communicate with a basic level of fluency in the language. The sooner this level of critical fluency is reached, the faster subsequent new input is acquired. It is almost as if, with this initial step towards fluency, we are providing the students with a clear enough picture of the language puzzle, so that new input from then on is simply a meaningful piece of the puzzle that seems to “fit” into the larger whole.
Why is gesture so effective?
The GA is one component of a holistic method that has proven successful in accelerating the acquisition of French among students in core classes. It was developed in order to provide a kinesthetic and visual representation of the language, especially for parts of speech for which meaning has traditionally been difficult to convey without translation or large amounts of time immersed in the language. The GA allows teachers to combine an understanding of how the language flows in context, with a strategy that is at the same time kinesthetic and visual as well as auditory, and that helps to accelerate the acquisition of the target vocabulary. A number of students have also used these gestures to assist them in communicating with the teacher or each other. Results of action research conducted over the past few years with students in this program have demonstrated that production is essential for truly effective internalization of vocabulary and language patterns, as well as for the development of the ability to engage in spontaneous communicative interaction. There is, of course, a natural ease associated with the use of sign. If we examine the origins of language systems, we discover that the use of gesture to convey meaning was in fact a natural precursor to the development of vocal expression; according to Pribram (in Wilkinson ed., 1993)
“…we see that linguistic processing began as visual-gestural communication, and only later became audio-vocal.” (p.70)
One of the reasons for this is that phonemes are arbitrary representations of meaning, whereas in gesture, the action and its meaning have a direct correlation. If we are able to match a word to movement, abstract meaning becomes concrete for the L2 learner. It is for this reason that, in fact, children of deaf parents sign words before children of hearing parents speak. Vadim-Deglin (quoted in Wilkinson, 1993) claims that:
…linguistic processing began with “right hemisphere” visual-gestural communication, because, in evolutionary terms, animals appear to have two right brains...This pattern of right hemispheric functions occurring prior to left hemispheric ones also emerges in the speech-formation sequence in humans (p.60).
Other studies have indicated a relationship between kinesics and an accelerative learning rate. The literacy program Jolly Phonics contained a kinesthetic component, in which young students would associate the letter sound with gesture. A recent study carried out in a number of Ontario schools (Willows, 1999) showed that this method was highly effective in developing encoding and decoding skills among students at the kindergarten level. Not only does a kinesthetic approach help to accelerate acquisition among language learners, it is also proven to increase memory retention in general. A recent study that appeared in the Globe and Mail (2001) states:
Using your hands when you talk boosts your memory according to a study in Psychological Science. University of Chicago researchers found that subjects... remembered more of a previously remembered list when they were asked to gesticulate. When forced to keep their hands still, they didn’t remember as well. “It looks like [gesturing] makes thinking easier,” a researcher told the Chicago Sun-Times.
PLEASANT REPETITION
In their desire to avoid repetition and memorization, advocates of the Natural Approach (NA) (Krashen, 1981; Krashen & Terrel, 1983) and related systems might have just possibly thrown out a powerful L2 acquisition tool. What needs to be pointed out is that it is not repetition per se that is detrimental to the acquisition of the L2, but the way in which it is delivered, that needs to be questioned. It is obvious that, in the same way that one can only become a proficient gymnast through the constant practice of exercises and skill-building techniques, one can only become fluent in another language through ongoing practice of its vocabulary and grammatical structures. In immersion situations, students are surrounded by enough of the L2 that enough necessary repetition naturally occurs to promote linguistic competence (see, for instance: Harley, Swain, Lapkin, Cummins, 1987; Harley, Swain, Lapkin, Cummins, 1990). In the limited instruction time given to core French (100-200 minutes / week) there are simply not enough opportunities for the necessary repetition to occur; the students lack the basic tools for even a basic fluency and are unable to integrate new linguistic input, because they lack a base into which it can be applied.
Such is the dilemma that the advocates of communicative approaches are facing: they reject traditional methods of L2 instruction and the dryness of what is largely semantic- free repetition but are uncertain what can replace this, within the limited confines of core language instruction. Clearly, the endless repeating of decontextualized phrases will likely lead to boredom, even frustration, on the part of both the student and the teacher. Mini-dialogues, similar to those found in the once popular audio-lingual approach, are also of limited use, although they may be written around a particular theme (generally something mundane, such as meeting a friend or checking into a hotel). They lack an embedded narrative, have limited emotional content and are consequently of little relevance to the younger student.
However, in certain circumstances, namely in musical and dramatic contexts, repetition can indeed be a powerful language acquisition tool. What makes the use of songs, plays and gesture activities very different from other forms of repetition is the fact that they have both an underlying narrative or story that elicits an emotional response from its participants. In singing a song or acting out a play, we identify with characters in the unfolding narrative. Students develop empathy for those who people these stories, because in them they see parts of themselves. Finally, there is a purpose to the repetition – the final performance to other classes in the school, family members and friends!
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Bancroft (1997) has described numerous advantages to the conscious application of a variety of nonverbal communication strategies. The Histoires en action ! program bases many of its suggestions in the teaching guides on the results of this research. It has been shown that students are more receptive to the learning of a L2 and actually succeed better if the teacher ensures that the following occurs in the classroom:
1. The teacher appears positive, caring:
* looks directly at the students (eye contact)
* smiles;
* does not rush student’s speech (waits patiently, without interruption as students express themselves in the L2);
* teacher’s body posture (leans body/head toward students) demonstrates a true interest in what the student has to say, and his/her effort to try;
* always speaks at a pace that is consistent with student level of fluency and comprehension;
* shows that s/he is aware that students are working hard to comprehend.
2. The teacher is excited about his/her subject
* shows a sincere happiness and enthusiasm about teaching the subject and a true interest in the students;
* tells students how sincerely impressed s/he is with their efforts on a regular basis.
Along these same lines, Bennett, Rolheiser and Stevahn (1991), in their book dealing with cooperative learning strategies, state: The climate of the class is greatly influenced by the affective qualities of the teacher and students. Teachers who foster politeness, humour, concern, caring, enthusiasm and consideration…truly make teaching “GO”. (p.63) Although no program can change the unique character and teaching style of an individual who uses it, classroom management techniques, and suggestions for classroom management routines, content and teaching/learning strategies found in this program greatly support the notion that we must be aware of students’ needs in a L2 classroom and support all efforts made by students with a positive, supportive, caring attitude. The overall guiding principles for implementation of the program ensure that teachers are made explicitly aware of the importance of this.
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